https://doi.org/10.1177/097300520700300107, Verma RK, Kumar VVS, Yadav SK, Pushkar S, Rao MV, Chinnusamy V (2019) Overexpression of ABA receptor PYL10 gene confers drought and cold tolerance to indica rice. Agric Water Manag 56(2):93112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2016.04.001, Parihar CM, Singh AK, Jat SL, Ghosh A, Dey A, Nayak HS, Parihar MD, Mahala DM, Yadav RK, Rai V, Satayanaryana T (2019) Dependence of temperature sensitivity of soil organic carbon decomposition on nutrient management options under conservation agriculture in a sub-tropical Inceptisol. 1999; Kukal and Aggarwal 2002). Field Crop Res 215:222231. Sci World J 2012:e279641. In a different study, Pittelkow et al. The O. glaberrima allele of TT1 was shown to be more efficient in degradation of cytotoxic denatured proteins during the heat stress. 2015), and it has about 25% share in global groundwater consumption. These studies show that the adoption of improved rice varieties has positive impacts on income and expenditures of households. Since Asian rice production makes up approximately 90% of the world rice production (GRIsP, 2013) and with respects to possible different farm practices among 2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.02.010, Jimmy AN, Khan NA, Hossain MN, Sujauddin M (2017) Evaluation of the environmental impacts of rice paddy production using life cycle assessment: case study in Bangladesh. In the current scenario, when degradation of soil structure, declining soil health, residue handling issues and harmful emissions from rice cultivated fields are taking place, the sustainability of rice production system is questionable. Also, more water requiring crops are responsible for higher CO2 emission as compared to other crops in the areas where stationary diesel engines or tractors are used for pumping out the water. J Adv Scholarly Research Allied Education 16(2):269274, Bajwa GS (1993) Nitrate pollution of groundwater under different systems of land management in Punjab. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.03.005, Nambiar KKM, Abrol IP (1989) Long term fertilizer experiments in IndiaAn overview. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2015.05.002, Cabangon RJ, Tuong TP, Abdullah NB (2002) Comparing water input and water productivity of transplanted and direct-seeded rice production systems. Crop Prot 23(4):275285. Contrary to the impact on yield, Haque et al. A shift from intensive cerealcereal production system to leguminous-cereal cultivation or replacing ricewheat with maizewheat cropping system periodically under zero-till or CA practice could be beneficial for sustainable food grain production. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60846-9, Kumar V, Ladha JK (2011) Direct seeding of rice: recent developments and future research needs. PhD Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The diverse weed flora consisting of grasses, broadleaved and sedges infest rice crop depending on the rice culture and management practices adopted as well as soil and climate conditions. Impact of contract farming on rice farm performance: of India, New Delhi. 2020). The negative effects of subsurface compaction on the establishment, seed emergence, root growth and yield of succeeding crop are of major concern (Kukal and Aggarwal 2003). Increased concentration of CO2 and fluctuations in temperature and precipitation would impact the rice growth and productivity severely due to significant effects of these factors in photosynthesis and other important metabolic processes (Liu et al. 2003a), soil degradation (Bhandari et al. Moreover, further characterization of these QTLs to understand the mechanisms and causal genes has not been very impressive. In northern Indian plains, some practices such as intensive rice cultivation with traditional method for long-term have been associated with severe deterioration of natural resources, declining factor productivity, multiple nutrients deficiencies, depleting groundwater, labour scarcity and higher cost of cultivation, putting the agricultural sustainability in question. The huge volumetric loss of groundwater and its faster declining rate might be the cause for India becoming a home for 25% of worldwide population living under water-scarce conditions (Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2016; Anonymous 2019a). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045117, Dwivedi BS, Shukla AK, Singh VK, Yadav RL (2003) Improving nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiencies through inclusion of forage cowpea in the ricewheat systems in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Laik et al. In: Nayyar VK, Singh J (eds) Yadvinder-Singh, Bijay-Singh. The three most common traits found in GMO crops are: Resistance to insect damage. Nat Commun 8(1):113. Killebrew and Wolff (2010) reported that long-term intensive rice cultivation system led to soil salinization, nutrient deficiencies, soil toxicities and reduced capacity of the soil to supply the nitrogen to the plant roots. Centre for Advancement of Sustainable Agriculture (CASA), New Delhi, India, pp 5563, Sidhu HS, Singh M, Humphreys E, Singh Y, Singh B, Dhillon SS, Blackwell J, Bector V, Singh M, Singh S (2007) The Happy Seeder enables direct drilling of wheat into rice stubble. Irrig Sci 36(6):381393. In: Managing water and fertilizer for sustainable agricultural intensification. 2014). Shock, risk attitude and rice farming: Evidence from panel data This is how rice is hurting the planet | World Economic https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62836-4, Zhao Y, Chan Z, Gao J, Xing L, Cao M, Yu C, Hu Y, You J, Shi H, Zhu Y et al (2016) ABA receptor PYL9 promotes drought resistance and leaf senescence. Sometimes theres not enough rain when seedlings need WebRice farming in the Gulf Coast. A few genetic engineering approaches for developing the abiotic stress tolerance in rice are presented in Table 4. 2002; Humphreys et al. International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, France, pp 5769, Tripathi SC, Das A (2017) Bed planting for resource conservation, diversification and sustainability of wheat based cropping system. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2017.10.007, Kassam A, Friedrich T, Shaxson F, Pretty J (2009) The spread of conservation agriculture: justification, sustainability and uptake. species complex. Nemecek et al. T at 1070 in place of A in susceptible allele, causing amino acid substitution Iso357 (in tolerant) to Lys357 (in susceptible) (Lu et al. J Integr Agric 17(10):22222234. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-030212-182644, Siebert S, Burke J, Faures JM, Frenken K, Hoogeveen J, Dll P, Portmann FT (2010) Groundwater use for irrigationA global inventory. A total of 132,000 accessions of rice were maintained by International Rice Genebank Collection Information System (IRGCIS) of International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) as on December 2019. Environ Re Lett 14(7):e074011. 2010). Rice is one of the most widely adapted crops due to the vast genetic diversity and its wild relatives (Singhet al. (2008) identified that qLTG31 (Os03g0103300) encoding protein of unknown function is important for germination at low temperature. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00297-3, Busari MA, Kukal SS, Kaur A, Bhatt R, Dulazi AA (2015) Conservation tillage impacts on soil, crop and the environment. Rice production 1. Adv Agron 109:155217. However, puddling method also reduces deep drainage losses by lowering the infiltration rate, which is generally high in the absence of puddling in coarse-textured soils (Sharma et al. 2008). 2020). Cultivars harbouring tolerant allele of qLTG31 or overexpressing rice lines showed low-temperature germinability phenotype, suggesting variations in promoter region of tolerant and susceptible alleles. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Govt. 2018). Arch Agron Soil Sci 57(2):159166. However, only 48% of this water is stored in the surface and groundwater bodies due to losses in various hydrological processes such as runoff, water discharge through rivers to oceans, evaporation and evapotranspiration (Verma and Phansalkar 2007; Dhawan 2017). An SNP in coding sequence of LOC_Os10g34840 was identified through genome-wide association study of 1033 rice accessions, which contribute low-temperature tolerance at seedling stage. Soil Tillage Res 206:e104797. Arch Agron Soil Sci 65(14):20132028. 5a). 2016). Cote Divoire Crop Protection 20(8):691694. Accessed 04 Dec 2020, Jain N, Bhatia A, Pathak H (2014) Emission of air pollutants from crop residue burning in India. Three major bacterial blight resistance genes (Xa21, xa13 and xa5) were introduced through marker-assisted breeding to produce a bacterial blight resistant rice cultivar, Improved Samba Mahsuri (Sundaram et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.03.005, NPMCR [National policy for management of crop residue] (2014). NRG Paper 9601, CIMMYT, Mexico. A more yield decline has been witnessed in rice as compared to wheat under ricewheat cropping system (Ladha et al. 2018), weeds in India caused a loss of about 1566% in DSR and 630% in PTR. Taken together, systematic work on rice cultivation in varying environmental conditions in combination with genetic studies has widened our current understanding of rice grain quality. Moreover, integrated approach of suitable cultivars for conservation agriculture, mechanized transplanting on zero-tilled/unpuddled field and need-based application of water, fertilizer and chemicals might be a successful approach for sustainable rice production system in the current scenario. 2015). The economic sustainability of rice farming and its Fig. (2009) observed higher cumulative leaching losses of nitrogen (4669kgNha1) in rice field than the wheat field (1622kgNha1). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(02)00007-0, Tandon HLS (2007) Soil nutrient balance sheets in India: Importance, status, issues, and concerns. 2005a; Bakti et al. https://www.prsindia.org/administrator/uploads/general/1455682937~~Overview%20of%20Ground%20Water%20in%20India.pdf. Front Plant Sci 7:e235. 2014). Soil Tillage Res 136:7683. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgeed.2020.00005, Zeng Y, Wen J, Zhao W, Wang Q, Huang W (2020) Rational improvement of rice yield and cold tolerance by editing the three genes OsPIN5b, GS3, and OsMYB30 with the CRISPRCas9 system. https://doi.org/10.1071/EA06225, Sidhu HS, Singh M, Singh Y, Blackwell J, Lohan SK, Humphreys E, Jat ML, Singh V, Singh S (2015) Development and evaluation of the turbo happy seeder for sowing wheat into heavy rice residues in NW India. 1 shows the growth rate of rice Field Crop Res 190:1825. In ricewheat cropping system, the net negative balance of NPK is 2.22 mt per annum for IGP (Tandon 2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-007-9564-6, Swanton CJ, Shrestha A, Knezevic SZ, Roy RC, Ball-Coelho BR (2000) Influence of tillage type on vertical seed bank distribution in a sandy soil. The severity and intensity of these abiotic stresses are increasing due to climate change (Pereira 2016). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.01488, Vyas S, Anand B, Sharma SN (2019) Status and importance of traditional water conservation system in present scenario. 2014). COLD1 (Chilling Tolerance; LOC_Os04 g51180) was found to be a key player associated with chilling tolerance, which acts through activation of Ca++ channel by interacting with G protein and regulating G protein signalling at plasma membrane (Ma et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11051010, Shanmugavadivel PS, Sv AM, Prakash C, Ramkumar MK, Tiwari R, Mohapatra T, Singh NK (2017) High resolution mapping of QTLs for heat tolerance in rice using a 5K SNP array. Int J Agric Sustain 17(2):146157. Busari et al. J Cleaner Prod 224:7287. Technologies such as CA should be promoted and practised on a large scale to improve the water productivity of crops. The gases emitted from crop residue burning can cause radiation imbalance, leading to harmful effects such as more aerosols in the region, acid rain and ozone layer depletion. J Plant Physiol 156(4):516521. Plant Physiol 177(3):11081123. 1994). 2019) and environmental pollution (Jimmy et al. PubMed Central J Exp Bot 68(9):23992412. Agri-Biosci Monogr 4(1):118. Originality/value https://doi.org/10.1080/15324989209381306, Bouman B (2009) How much water does rice use? 2017). Front Plant Sci. BY CASSIDY NEMEC EDITOR Daniel and Dillon Berglund stem from a long line of At the same time, these food production systems themselves have a range of negative impacts on the environment. Google Scholar, Das TK, Bhattacharyya R, Sharma AR, Das S, Saad AA, Pathak H (2013) Impacts of conservation agriculture on total soil organic carbon retention potential under an irrigated agro-ecosystem of the western Indo-Gangetic Plains. It creates a huge burden on the environment during the rice-harvesting and wheat-sowing season. 2016). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5451.303, Yi J, An G (2013) Utilization of T-DNA tagging lines in rice. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.006, Mahajan G, Timsina J, Kuldeep-Singh, (2011) Performance and water-use efficiency of rice relative to establishment methods in northwestern Indo-gangetic plains. 2017). https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/plans/stateplan/index.php?state=sdr_up.htm. Accessed 20 Sep 2021, Pingali PL, Heisey PW (2001) Cereal-crop productivity in developing countries: past trends and future prospects. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2008.09.013, Rodell M, Velicogna I, Famiglietti JS (2009) Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. Overall, DSR has diverse weed flora due to alternate wetting and dry conditions. Although some researchers have found organic rice farming to have a positive impact, some farmers are still skeptical about it because farmers tend to judge 1997). Easily accessible and sufficient availability of irrigation water in north-western India turned out ricewheat cropping system, a classical example of high productive system in non-ideal soilsfor rice cultivation, which are porous, coarse and highly permeable in nature (Chauhan et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 115(39):97209725. 2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4518-2, Bijay-Singh SYH, Johnson-Beebout SE, Yadvinder-Singh BRJ (2008) Crop residue management for lowland rice-based cropping systems in Asia. Soil Sci Soc Am J 66:421429. The impact of agricultural commercialisation on household In addition to excessive water, capital and energy demand, this practice of rice cultivation is associated with soil degradation (Bhatt et al. SAARC Journal of Agriculture 3:191201, Tuong TP (1999) Productive water use in rice production: Opportunities and limitations. Adv Agron 68:197319. Moreover, shifting the rice monoculture to ricefish farming showed positive effects on soil health in terms of labile pool of C fractions, microbial populations, nutrients and soil fertility in addition to environmental sustainability (Bihari et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-020-00819-w, Ladha JK, Dawe D, Pathak H, Padre AT, Yadav RL, Singh B, Singh Y, Singh Y, Singh P, Kundu AL et al (2003a) How extensive are yield declines in long-term ricewheat experiments in Asia? In: Ladha JK, Singh Y, Erenstein O, Hardy B (ed) Integrated crop and resource management in the rice-wheat system of South Asia. Trop Plant Biol 9:215228. Rice endosperm is composed of 8090% starch with 628% amylose content and 57% proteins, which serve as energy and protein source of the global population especially indeveloping countries. Water-saving techniques such as micro-irrigation systems (sprinkler and drip irrigation) proved as cutting edge technology for improving the water use efficiency and conserving the water due to elimination of conveyance losses, evaporation from the water surface, runoff losses, etc. 2009), same cropping pattern over the years (Nambiar and Abrol 1989) and lack of awareness about consequences of faulty cultivation practices among farmers (Dis et al. 2009). In fact, weedy rice problem in Malaysia has left some farmers to switch back to transplanting method of rice cultivation to control it. http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/reports_and_publication/statistical_publication/EnviStats/EnviStats_India_27sep18.pdf. (2017a) estimated the global yield loss of rice by 3.2% for every 1C increase in global mean temperature by compiling the extensive published results from different analytical methods. https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-05-184R.1, Chauhan BS, Mahajan G, Sardana V, Timsina J, Jat ML (2012) Productivity and sustainability of the ricewheat cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent: problems, opportunities, and strategies. 2016; Wei et al. Front Plant Sci 10:e1663. Conservation agriculture (CA) is an alternate farming practice, which emphasizes on minimum soil disturbance, soil cover with crop residue (30%) and crop rotation (Hobbs et al. Weeds are the major problem in rice cultivation. 1. Therefore, soil and water management, integration of green or brown manuring, growing of dual-purpose pulses and addition of organic manure along with inorganic fertilizers are required to reverse the trend and improve the crop response in long run. In this context, among plant-derived foods, cereals, which have been the main source of macro-nutrients for humans and animals for centuries, account for about 18% of 2009; Qiao et al. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. 2014). The results in Table 7 show strong positive effects of contract farming participation on the technical efficiency scores. 2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-017-0368-y, Ju XT, Xing GX, Chen XP, Zhang SL, Zhang LJ, Liu XJ, Cui ZL, Yin B, Christie P, Zhu ZL, Zhang FS (2009) Reducing environmental risk by improving N management in intensive Chinese agricultural systems. Though it is very difficult to stop the nitrogen leaching completely, better management practices by adopting the proper irrigation and fertilizer scheduling can minimize theleaching losses and improve N-use efficiency (Singh et al. PRS Legislative Research standing committee report on Water Resources examined, New Delhi, India, pp 111. FARM J 4(2):511, Kumar VVS, Verma RK, Yadav SK, Yadav P, Watts A, Rao MV, Chinnusamy V (2020b) CRISPR-Cas9 mediated genome editing of drought and salt tolerance (OsDST) gene in indica mega rice cultivar MTU1010. In many locations, arsenic content of groundwater under rice cultivation exceeded the acceptable limit (10g L1), raising the contamination level up to 312g L1 (Srivastava et al. Accessed 08 Oct 2020, Ufaz S, Galili G (2008) Improving the content of essential amino acids in crop plants: goals and opportunities. Farming The rate of groundwater level fall in India is probably the fastest globally (Aeschbach-Hertig and Gleeson 2012). Environmental impacts PubMed https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1701762114, Zhao J, Zhang S, Dong J, Yang T, Mao X, Liu Q, Wang X, Liu B (2017b) A novel functional gene associated with cold tolerance at the seedling stage in rice. Education is also found to have a positive effect on output of rice farming households because it helps them better manage farms of larger size via combining various inputs in a more desirable way. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(02)00219-8, Ladha JK, Kumar V, Alam MM, Sharma S, Gathala M, Chandna P, Saharawat YS, Balasubramanian V (2009) Integrating crop and resource management technologies for enhanced productivity, profitability, and sustainability of the rice-wheat system in South Asia.

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